Definition
Immunodeficiency disorders are a group of disorders in which part of the immune system is missing or defective. Therefore, the body'sability to fight infections is impaired. As a result, the person with an immunodeficiency disorder will have frequent infections that aregenerally more severe and last longer than usual.
Description
The immune system is the body's main method for fighting infections. Any defect in the immune system decreases a person's ability tofight infections. A person with an immunodeficiency disorder may get more frequent infections, heal more slowly, and have a higherincidence of some cancers.
The normal immune system involves a complex interaction of certain types of cells that can recognize and attack "foreign" invaders, suchas bacteria, viruses, and fungi. It also plays a role in fighting cancer. The immune system has both innate and adaptive components. Innateimmunity is made up of immune protections people are born with. Adaptive immunity develops throughout life. It adapts to fight off specificinvading organisms. Adaptive immunity is divided into two components: humoral immunity and cellular immunity.
The innate immune system is made up of the skin (which acts as a barrier to prevent organisms from entering the body), white blood cellscalled phagocytes, a system of proteins called the complement system, and chemicals called interferons. When phagocytes encounter aninvading organism, they surround and engulf it to destroy it. The complement system also attacks bacteria. The elements in thecomplement system create a hole in the outer layer of the target cell, which leads to the death of the cell.
The adaptive component of the immune system is extremely complex, and is still not entirely understood. Basically, it has the ability torecognize an organism or tumor cell as not being a normal part of the body, and to develop a response to attempt to eliminate it.
The humoral response of adaptive immunity involves a type of cell called B lymphocytes. B lymphocytes manufacture proteins calledantibodies (which are also called immunoglobulins). Antibodies attach themselves to the invading foreign substance. This allows thephagocytes to begin engulfing and destroying the organism. The action of antibodies also activates the complement system. The humoralresponse is particularly useful for attacking bacteria.
The cellular response of adaptive immunity is useful for attacking viruses, some parasites, and possibly cancer cells. The main type of cellin the cellular response is T lymphocytes. There are helper T lymphocytes and killer T lymphocytes. The helper T lymphocytes play a rolein recognizing invading organisms, and they also help killer T lymphocytes to multiply. As the name suggests, killer T lymphocytes act todestroy the target organism.
Defects can occur in any component of the immune system or in more than one component (combined immunodeficiency). Differentimmunodeficiency diseases involve different components of the immune system. The defects can be inherited and/or present at birth(congenital) or acquired.
Congenital immunodeficiency disorders
Congenital immunodeficiency is present at the time of birth, and is the result of genetic defects. These immunodeficiency disorders are alsocalled primary immunodeficiencies. Even though more than 70 different types of congenital immunodeficiency disorders have been identified,they rarely occur. About 50,000 new cases are diagnosed in the United States each year. Congenital immunodeficiencies may occur as aresult of defects in B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, or both. They also can occur in the innate immune system.
HUMORAL IMMUNITY DISORDERS. Bruton's agammaglobulinemia, also known as X-linked agammaglobulinemia, a congenitalimmunodeficiency disorder. The defect results in a decrease or absence of B lymphocytes, and therefore a decreased ability to makeantibodies. People with this disorder are particularly susceptible to infections of the throat, skin, middle ear, and lungs. It is seen only inmales because it is caused by a genetic defect on the X chromosome. Since males have only one X chromosome, they always have thedefect if the gene is present. Females can have the defective gene, but since they have two X chromosomes, there will be a normal gene onthe other X chromosome to counter it. Women may pass the defective gene on to their male children.
B LYMPHOCYTE DEFICIENCIES. If there is an abnormality in either the development or function of B lymphocytes, the ability to makeantibodies will be impaired. This allows the body to be susceptible to recurrent infections.
A type of B lymphocyte deficiency involves a group of disorders called selective immunoglobulin deficiency syndomes. Immunoglobulin isanother name for antibody, and there are five different types of immunoglobulins (called IgA, IgG, IgM, IgD, and IgE). The most common typeof immunoglobulin deficiency is selective IgA deficiency, occurring in about one in every 500 white persons. The amounts of the otherantibody types are normal. Some patients with selective IgA deficiency experience no symptoms, while others have occasional lunginfections and diarrhea. In another immunoglobulin disorder, IgG and IgA antibodies are deficient and there is increased IgM. People withthis disorder tend to get severe bacterial infections.
Common variable immunodeficiency is another type of B lymphocyte deficiency. In this disorder, the
production
of one or more of theimmunoglobulin types is decreased and the antibody response to infections is impaired. It generally develops around the age of 10-20. Thesymptoms vary among affected people. Most people with this disorder have frequent infections, and some also will experience anemia andrheumatoid arthritis. Many people with common variable immunodeficiency develop cancer.
T LYMPHOCYTE DEFICIENCIES. Severe defects in the ability of T lymphocytes to mature results in impaired immune responses toinfections with viruses, fungi, and certain types of bacteria. These infections are usually severe and can be fatal.
DiGeorge syndrome is a T lymphocyte deficiency that starts during fetal development and is the result of a deletion in a particularchromosome. Children with DiGeorge syndrome either do not have a thymus or have an underdeveloped thymus. Since the thymus is amajor organ that directs the production of T-lymphocytes, these patients have very low numbers of T-lymphocytes. They are susceptible torecurrent infections, and usually have physical abnormalities as well. For example, they may have low-set ears, a small receding jawbone,and wide-spaced eyes. People with DiGeorge syndrome are particularly susceptible to viral and fungal infections.
In some cases, no treatment is required for DiGeorge syndrome because T lymphocyte production improves. Either an underdevelopedthymus begins to produce more T lymphocytes or organ sites other than the thymus compensate by producing more T lymphocytes.
COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENCIES. Some types of immunodeficiency disorders affect both B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. Forexample, severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID) is caused by the defective development or function of these two types oflymphocytes. It results in impaired humoral and cellular immune responses. SCID usually is recognized during the first year of life. It tendsto cause a fungal infection of the mouth (thrush), diarrhea, failure to thrive, and serious infections. If not treated with a bone marrowtransplant, a person with SCID will generally die from infections before age two. In 2003, a report showed a new form of severe SCID withsevere mutation of T receptor cells.
DISORDERS OF INNATE IMMUNITY. Disorders of innate immunity affect phagocytes or the complement system. These disorders alsoresult in recurrent infections.
Acquired immunodeficiency disorders
Acquired immunodeficiency is more common than congenital immunodeficiency. It is the result of an infectious process or other disease.For example, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the virus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). However, thisis not the most common cause of acquired immunodeficiency.
Acquired immunodeficiency often occurs as a complication of other conditions and diseases. For example, the most common causes ofacquired immunodeficiency are malnutrition, some types of cancer, and infections. People who weigh less than 70% of the average weightof persons of the same age and gender are considered to be malnourished. Examples of types of infections that can lead toimmunodeficiency are chickenpox, cytomegalovirus, German measles, measles, tuberculosis, infectious mononucleosis (Epstein-Barrvirus), chronic hepatitis, lupus, and bacterial and fungal infections.
In 2003, a new infection emerged that produces immunodeficiency. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) mysteriously appeared in ahospital in China. It eventually affected 8,000 people in Asia and Canada, killing 800 altogether. The virus is characterized by fever, lowerrespiratory tract symptoms, and abnormal chest x rays. However, it also produces immunodeficiency. No cases of the disease werereported from July 2003 through December 2003, but scientists feared it would reappear.
Sometimes, acquired immunodeficiency is brought on by drugs used to treat another condition. For example, patients who have an organtransplant are given drugs to suppress the immune system so the body will not reject the organ. Also, some chemotherapy drugs, whichare given to treat cancer, have the side effect of killing cells of the immune system. During the period of time that these drugs are beingtaken, the risk of infection increases. It usually returns to normal after the person stops taking the drugs.
Causes and symptoms
Congenital immunodeficiency is caused by genetic defects, which generally occur while the fetus is developing in the womb. These defectsaffect the development and/or function of one or more of the components of the immune system. Acquired immunodeficiency is the result ofa disease process, and it occurs later in life. The causes, as described above, can be diseases, infections, or the side effects of drugs givento treat other conditions.
People with an immunodeficiency disorder tend to become infected by organisms that do not usually cause disease in healthy persons. Themajor symptoms of most immunodeficiency disorders are repeated infections that heal slowly. These chronic infections cause symptomsthat persist for long periods of time. People with chronic infection tend to be pale and thin. They may have skin rashes. Their lymph nodestend to be larger than normal and their liver and spleen also may be enlarged. The lymph nodes are small organs that house antibodies andlymphocytes. Broken blood vessels, especially near the surface of the skin, may be seen. This can result in black-and-blue marks in theskin. The person may lose hair from their head. Sometimes, a red inflammation of the lining of the eye (conjunctivitis) is present. They mayhave a crusty appearance in and on the nose from chronic nasal dripping.
Diagnosis
Usually, the first sign that a person might have an immunodeficiency disorder is that they do not improve rapidly when given antibiotics totreat an infection. Strong indicators that an immunodeficiency disorder may be present is when rare diseases occur or the patient gets illfrom organisms that do not normally cause diseases, especially if the patient gets repeatedly infected. If this happens in very youngchildren it is an indication that a genetic defect may be causing an immunodeficiency disorder. When this situation occurs in older childrenor young adults, their medical history will be reviewed to determine if childhood diseases may have caused an immunodeficiency disorder.Other possibilities will then be considered, such as recently acquired infections—for example, HIV, hepatitis, tuberculosis, etc.
Laboratory tests are used to determine the exact nature of the immunodeficiency. Most tests are performed on blood samples. Bloodcontains antibodies, lymphocytes, phagocytes, and complement components—all of the major immune components that might causeimmunodeficiency. A blood cell count will determine if the number of phagocytic cells or lymphocytes is below normal. Lower than normalcounts of either of these two cell types correlates with immunodeficiencies. The blood cells also are checked for their appearance.Sometimes a person may have normal cell counts, but the cells are structurally defective. If the lymphocyte cell count is low, further testingis usually done to determine whether any particular type of lymphocyte is lower than normal. A lymphocyte proliferation test is done todetermine if the lymphocytes can respond to stimuli. The failure to respond to stimulants correlates with immunodeficiency. Antibody levelscan be measured by a process called electrophoresis. Complement levels can be determined by immunodiagnostic tests.
Treatment
There is no cure for immunodeficiency disorders. Therapy is aimed at controlling infections and, for some disorders, replacing defective orabsent components.
Patients with Bruton's agammaglobulinemia must be given periodic injections of a substance called gamma globulin throughout their lives tomake up for their decreased ability to make antibodies. The gamma globulin preparation contains antibodies against common invadingbacteria. If left untreated, the disease usually is fatal.
Common variable immunodeficiency also is treated with periodic injections of gamma globulin throughout life. Additionally, antibiotics aregiven when necessary to treat infections.
Patients with selective IgA deficiency usually do not require any treatment. Antibiotics can be given for frequent infections.
In some cases, no treatment is required for DiGeorge syndrome because T lymphocyte production improves on its own. Either anunderdeveloped thymus begins to produce more T lymphocytes or organ sites other than the thymus compensate by producing more Tlymphocytes. In some severe cases, a bone marrow transplant or thymus transplant can be done to correct the problem.
For patients with SCID, bone marrow transplantation is necessary. In this procedure, healthy bone marrow from a donor who has a similartype of tissue (usually a relative, like a brother or sister) is removed. The bone marrow is a substance that resides in the cavity of bones. Itis the factory that produces blood, including some of the white blood cells that make up the immune system. The bone marrow of theperson receiving the transplant is destroyed, and is then replaced with marrow from the donor.
Treatment of the HIV infection that causes AIDS consists of drugs called antiretrovirals. These drugs attempt to inhibit the process that thevirus goes through to kill T lymphocytes. Several of these drugs used in various combinations with one another can prolong the period oftime before the disease becomes apparent. However, this is not a cure. Other treatments for people with AIDS are aimed at the particularinfections and conditions that arise as a result of the impaired immune system. SARS is a relatively new acquired disease. Treatment todate involves combination therapy with steroids and interferon and supplemental oxygen for breathing difficulties. In 2004, reports in theUnited States said that a drug called octagam 5%, an intravenous immunoglobulin, was used to treat primary immunodeficiency diseases.The drug has been used in Europe for the same purpose.
In most cases, immunodeficiency caused by malnutrition is reversible. The health of the immune system is directly linked to the nutritionalstatus of the patient. Among the essential nutrients required by the immune system are proteins, vitamins, iron, and zinc.
For people being treated for cancer, periodic relief from chemotherapy drugs can restore the function of the immune system.
In general, people with immunodeficiency disorders should maintain a healthy diet. This is because malnutrition can aggravateimmunodeficiencies. They also should avoid being near people who have colds or are sick because they can easily acquire new infections.For the same reason, they should practice good personal hygiene, especially dental care. People with immunodeficiency disorders alsoshould avoid eating undercooked food because it might contain bacteria that could cause infection. This food would not cause infection innormal persons, but in someone with an immunodeficiency, food is a potential source of infectious organisms. People withimmunodeficiency should be given antibiotics at the first indication of an infection.
Prognosis
The prognosis depends on the type of immunodeficiency disorder. People with Bruton's agammaglobulinemia who are given injections ofgamma globulin generally live into their 30s or 40s. They often die from chronic infections, usually of the lung. People with selective IgAdeficiency generally live normal lives. They may experience problems if given a blood transfusion, and therefore they should wear a MedicAlert bracelet or have some other way of alerting any physician who treats them that they have this disorder.
SCID is the most serious of the immunodeficiency disorders. If a bone marrow transplant is not successfully performed, the child usuallywill not live beyond two years old.
People with HIV/AIDS are living longer than in the past because of the antiretroviral drugs that became available in the mid 1990s. However,AIDS still is a fatal disease. People with AIDS usually die of opportunistic infections, which are infections that occur because the impairedimmune system is unable to fight them.
Prevention
There is no way to prevent a congenital immuno-deficiency disorder. However, someone with a congenital immunodeficiency disorder mightwant to consider getting genetic counseling before having children to find out if there is a chance they will pass the defect on to theirchildren.
Some of the infections associated with acquired immunodeficiency can be prevented or treated before they cause problems. For example,there are effective treatments for tuberculosis and most bacterial and fungal infections. HIV infection can be prevented by practicing "safesex" and not using illegal intravenous drugs. These are the primary routes of transmitting the virus. For people who do not know the HIVstatus of the person with whom they are having sex, safe sex involves using a condom.
Malnutrition can be prevented by getting adequate nutrition. Malnutrition tends to be more of a problem in developing countries.
Resources
Periodicals
"2003 Begins With SARS, Ends With Flu." Medical Letter on the CDC & FDA January 11, 2004: 24.
Cooper, Megan A., Thomas L. Pommering, and Katalin Koranyi. "Primary Immunodeficiencies." American Family Physician November 15,2003: 2001.
Fischer, Alain. "Have We Seen the Last Variant of Severe Combined Immunodeficiency?" The New England Journal of Medicine November6, 2003: 1789.
Low, Donald E., and Allison McGreer. "SARS—One Year Later." The New England Journal of Medicine December 18, 2003: 2381.
"Octagam is Efficacious for Treating Primary Immuno deficiency Diseases." Medical Letter on the CDC & FDA July 11, 2004: 52.
"Preliminary Report Suggests Combination Therapy May Help Treat SARS." Drug Week January 9, 2004: 557.
Key terms
Agammaglobulinemia — The lack of gamma globulins in the blood. Antibodies are the main gamma globulins of interest, so this termmeans a lack of antibodies.
Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine. Copyright 2008 The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.
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immunodeficiency /im·mu·no·de·fi·cien·cy/ (-dĕ-fish´en-se) a deficiency of immune response or a disorder characterized by deficientimmune response; classified as antibody (B cell), cellular (T cell), or combined immunodeficiency, or phagocytic dysfunction disorders.immunodefi´cient
common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by hypogammaglobulinemia, decreasedantibody production, and recurrent pyogenic infections, and often associated with hematologic and autoimmune disorders. Most patientsappear to have an intrinsic defect of B cell differentiation.
severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) a group of rare congenital disorders, ocurring in both autosomal recessive and X-linkedforms; characterized by gross impairment of both humoral and cell-mediated immunity, absence of T lymphocytes, and, in some forms,lack of B lymphocytes. Immunoglobulins are usually absent and there is marked lymphocytopenia. Unless treated with bone marrow or fetaltissue transplant, infants manifest persistent diarrhea, chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, and failure to thrive, and die from opportunistic infection.
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